Evaluation

Students will evaluate their project by asking how well the visual methodology worked. Where aspects of the plan were not easily implemented due to external circumstances or issues unforeseen at the planning stages, these will be explored and analysed. Reference should be made to the literature available in the reading list. (up to 1,000 words)

According to Prosser and Schwartz (2006) the appearance of naturally occurring objects, events and behaviours provide a gateway to the taken-for-granted, and reflects deeply embedded and therefore unquestioned aspects of culture which are critical to studies of society. The idea that something can become so deeply embedded it fails to be questioned or recognised is exactly what I wanted to demonstrate through my exploration of the influence of Christianity in the area.

At the earliest stages of planning, my intention was to photograph all of the churches in Inverness for the project. However, practical considerations aside, it became apparent there are many other ways to portray this influence. The principles of Grounded Theory as developed by Glasner & Straus (1967) refer to theory that is developed inductively from a corpus of data. Essentially according to the theorists, the grounded theory approach consists of a set of steps whose careful execution is thought to ‘guarantee’ a good theory as the outcome. Indeed according to Straus, the quality of a theory can be evaluated by the process by which a theory is constructed (Borgatti, 2007). With this in mind I attempted to take as many photographs as possible at the outset; to allow the theory to emerge from the data. Whilst a particular strength to this approach is that it allows implicit belief systems to become explicit, through an inductive rather than deductive process, as a social scientist I also found such an approach to be rather challenging due to my own academic experience. Nevertheless applying the principles of grounded theory essentially allowed me to experience a new way of exploring the social.

One particular limitation to my approach involved the organization of data. For example, writing oneself memos is an important part of the research process for grounded theorists. However, I often failed to type up such memos for my blog and instead left handwritten notes lying around precariously, which inevitably meant they would go missing. In addition, it would have been far more efficient to organize the coded data on to a spreadsheet however this was not done and instead, when looking for the final photos to include in my project, I simply organised them as I went.

Photographs have the uniquely iconic capacity to represent the particularities of a specific moment in time and space (Cronin, 2006). The photographs used in the final project aimed to demonstrate this in a variety of ways. Whilst the most obvious image is the church, the project also used images of such things as street names which can often be overlooked. In addition, Inverness has also used former churches for a variety of business ventures, including a bookshop and restaurant (both images captured in the final project). However in retrospect, whilst the project was able to demonstrate the subtle influences of Christianity, it may have been interesting to pursue the original aim and capture images of all the churches in Inverness. In addition, a greater emphasis on iconography within churches would perhaps have given greater nuance to the project aims.

Overall I feel the opportunity to explore image-based research was valuable and insightful. It not only allows one to move away from the more traditional methods of research but, in addition, using images to explore the meaning systems within any society can provide interpretations that are both rich and subtle in a way that perhaps words cannot. As an area of research however, it still only enjoys limited status due to the methodological concerns of orthodox word-orientated researchers. Indeed as Prosser (2006) suggests, social research has to a significant degree marginalized image-based research. This marginalization is further compounded by an academic community working within the qualitative paradigm who have devised a methodology which places emphasis on words, limiting the role played by images. As such image-based research is both undervalued and under applied by the orthodox qualitative research community. However the fact that it is resisted by orthodox researchers does not mean it is less worthy than more traditional forms of research, it simply means its potential has yet to be truly appreciated. As the philosopher of science, Karl Popper (1945), suggests existing knowledge about the world we live in has a provisional status rather than a permanent one. Indeed unless different approaches to the social are allowed to flourish, we risk losing critical and valuable insights into the world which they potentially offer.


Borgatti, S. (2007) Grounded Theory
[online] Available from:
< http://www.analytictech.com/mb870/introtoGT.htm >
Last accessed 20 May. 2008.

Cronin, O. (1998) ‘Psychology and Photographic Theory’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 69-83.

Prosser, J. (1998) ‘Status of Image-based Research’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 97-112.

Prosser, J. & Schwartz, D. (1998) ‘Photographs within the Sociological Research Process’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 115-130.

Mustard Seed

Like the bookshop, the Mustard Seed restaurant was originally built as a church. As can be seen from the photo, they have kept the original structure so it's quite easily identifiable as a church however when I asked family and friends what comes to mind when they think of the Mustard Seed, they all said 'restaurant'.

Tomnahurich cemetery

Initially, when I took these photos I had presumed that cemeteries were Christian burial grounds however after researching this I found that they are not. A graveyard that is attached to a church is however cemeteries are owned by the local authority. Whilst Christian and non-Christian alike can be buried in cemeteries, they still contain Christian iconography such as crosses and angels therefore I've kept the photos in.

bookshop

Leakey's bookshop in Inverness has been transformed from a church into one of the biggest secondhand bookshops in Scotland. Inside they have even kept the pulpit in tact where sermons were given! From my own experience, I often don't see its past history as a church but instead simply see it as a bookshop (with a great cafe inside incase anyone is interested).

hot cross buns

Traditionaly hot cross buns are eaten on Good Friday; the cross representing the crucifixion and the shape of the bun representing the rock that was removed from the front of the tomb on Easter Sunday.

The buns however have a mixed history. Some say they were part of pagan spring festivals and later given the cross by monks wanting to give Christian meaning to the tradition, whilst others suggest the cross represented the moon and its four quarters and, when the Romans arrived in Britain, they introduced spiced buns which were marked with the sign of the cross.

It was believed by some that hot cross buns had miraculous powers. People would hang them from their kitchen ceilings to protect their homes from evil and they were used in powdered form to treat all types of illnesses. It was also said that hot cross buns baked on Good Friday would never go mouldy...!

Holiday traditions often have pagan, as well as Christian roots and many times the symbolism has been changed over time to adapt to those using it in their celebrations.

Easter eggs

According to a survey carried out by a supermarket chain last year, 1 in 6 16-24 year olds knew nothing about Good Friday and over 10% knew nothing about Easter Sunday. However whilst many people may not know what Easter is about, there are many households who still enjoy chocolate eggs over the holidays.

According to various sources, Easter has been associated with old pagan celebrations of the rebirth of earth in the spring. Indeed according to some legends the very name Easter has been derived from ‘Eostre’, who was the Anglo Saxon Goddess of spring. In this way it was earlier addressed as the festivity of Eostre that always occurred during the period of vernal equinox, when the ratio of day to night was exactly the same. But some of the legends say that the Easter festival actually owes its origin to the Hebrew tradition, instead of the Christian tradition. According to the Hebrew lunar calendar it falls in the first month also known as ‘Nisan’. According to Hebrew tradition the reason behind its celebration is that it was during this period that Israel was rescued from the bondage of Egypt.

Eggs were a symbol of fertility in many pagan cultures. Church leaders forbade the eating of them during Lent but lifted the prohibition on Easter. The practice of dyeing and decorating eggs apparently originated in Middle East spring festivals and spread to Europe during the time of the Crusades.

Some facts about Easter

Easter always falls between March 22 and April 25.
Pysanka is a specific term used for the practice of Easter egg painting.
From very early times, the egg has been considered to be the most important symbol of rebirth.
The initial baskets of Easter were given the appearance of bird's nests.
The maiden chocolate eggs recipes were made in Europe in the nineteenth century.
Each year witnesses the making of nearly 90 million chocolate bunnies.
Next to Halloween, Easter holiday paves the way for the confectionary business to boom.

Easter flowers

The colours of yellow and green seem to be very much associated with the Easter celebrations and the coming of spring.

Road signs

In keeping with the tone of the project I took the above photos to highlight some of the ways links with Christianity are unnoticed. There are more around the area but these were just a snapshot so to speak. I found it interesting to note that all of the road signs that were named after saints appear to be in Dalneigh. Also, this does not appear to be something that was done in the past, the last photo (St Francis Gardens) is of a new block of flats that have only been built for approximately one year.

Dalneigh and Bona Parish Church

The Dalneigh and Bona Parish church seems to be a far more modern design compared with the styles of traditional churches however, like many of the churches in Inverness it has a large congregation.

churches along the river

I wanted to use this photo to capture the idea that there are many churches in Inverness, for example in one single frame I have managed to capture three.

St Mary's Church

St Mary's Church is situated on the banks of the River Ness. Attached to the church is St Mary's primary school. In keeping with the tone of the project I found it interesting to note that some families of the children who attend the primary school are not practicing catholics themselves. The rules on this are due to change shortly however.

first three churches

The photos taken above were captured at the beginning of the project when I had intended to take a photo of every church in Inverness. However due to various difficulties it became apparent that this would not be possible. The first church in Kinmylies is relatively new compared with, for example, Trinity Church (3rd photo) however it is very popular with many in the community. The second photo of Celt Street Evangelical Church is interesting because the building itself is not reminiscent of the more traditional church structure.

St Andrews Cathedral

The photos above were taken of Inverness Cathedral. I started my project here because I think it is such a lovely building. It was designed by architect Alexander Ross and completed in 1866 (although a lack of funds precluded the building of the two giant spires of the original design). Architecturally it is a beautiful building and fits in very well with its surroundings. Unfortunately I had problems accessing the building and therefore could not provide any photographs of inside. I might try again though!

introductory comment

The following series of photographs were taken as part of a project entitled ‘Banal Christianity in everyday life in Inverness’. The title, it is hoped, reflects exactly what the project is about, namely the integral nature of Christianity to social life in Inverness. The photographs aim to show the way in which links with Christianity have become so engrained within the area that they may not always be recognised. The most obvious of these would be the proliferation of churches in the Highland capital (a current estimation suggests 34) however links with Christianity are much wider and more subtle in context as the project hopes to portray.

the journalistic image as visual sociology

The journalistic image as visual sociology

According to Becker (1998) photographs by their very nature are ambiguous. Indeed a photograph taken by a visual sociologist or photojournalist may be similar however the significance of the photograph is found in the response it generates in those who perceive it. Context is either provided by the image and supporting text or will be left to the viewer to provide. Either way, it is the context that provides meaning. ‘Just as paintings get their meaning in a world of painters …. so photographs get their meaning from the way the people involved with them understand them, use them, and thereby attribute meaning to them. They are social constructions, pure and simple’ (Becker, 2002). As Adelman (1998) highlights the photo of a helicopter on a lawn with a person huddled under a jacket being assisted into the helicopter has only one additional clue and only for those who recognize the building as the White House. That photo document as a representation is unremarkable; when we are told that the person is President Nixon fleeing after Watergate we may be given meaning.

However like context, time is also an important element in understanding the journalistic image as visual sociology. Time is one of the ‘punctums’ identified by cultural theorist Barthes (1980 cited in Cronin, 1998). He claimed that, unlike a painting, when we see a photograph we cannot deny that its referent once existed. A photograph is therefore an emanation of a past reality. News photographs, no matter how iconic, derive their value from context or from the fact that they represent a current event. In this way, they rely on the viewer knowing exactly what the picture relates to. As Becker (1992) suggests, readers do not expect to spend any time deciphering ambiguities and complexities in the photographs that appear in their daily newspaper or news magazine. Such photographs must, therefore, be instantly readable, immediately interpretable.

Whilst the image may not hold its news value years later, such images still have the potential to be used in a much wider context by visual sociologists to document historical processes. Becker uses the aforementioned example of the demise of President Nixon in 1974. Whilst the image of Nixon’s last exit from the White House had immediate meaning for any person who followed the scandal, years later the image has no such connotations. However, as Becker suggests, the Nixon image offers the potential for sociological analysis in a much wider context, such as for example the way the devices of photographic representation are used to indicate the political downgrading of a disgraced leader. In this way, whilst such photographs are no longer newsworthy, they can still be of use to visual sociologists in that they can capture a variety of processes in a much wider context. As Becker (1998) suggests, images have the potential to be used in a variety of ways such as through visual sociology, photojournalism, etc. How they are used therefore depends on a variety of factors including organizations and audiences.

Becker, H. S. (1998) ‘Visual Sociology, Documentary Photography, and Photojournalism’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 84-96.

Becker, H. S. (2002) Backup of Visual Sociology, Documentary Photography, and Photojournalism: It's (Almost) All a Matter of Context [online] Available at:
< http://oldweb.uwp.edu/academic/criminal.justice/beckerbk02.htm >
Last accessed 07 Apr. 2008.

comment on validity and reliability in visual methods

Okay not sure what happened to my google document, so think I will just post here instead!


Validity is an element of social science research which address the issues of whether the researcher is actually measuring what they say they are. Validity is one criteria by which researchers judge their measurement tools; a valid result is one that accurately measures what it claims to be measuring. Reliability is the other criteria in assessing the quality and rigour of the research. It is a standard against which the tools used to measure concepts are judged. According to Hammersley (1992, cited in Bryman, 2004) reliability ‘refers to the degree of consistency with which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the same observer on different occasions’. Essentially reliability refers to consistency of results over time. In terms of image-based research there are a variety of approaches and definitions that attempt to deal with validity. According to Campbell and Stanley (1996 cited in Adelman, 1998) internal validity concerns the making of accurate inferences about whether the treatment that was implemented caused the effect that was measured for the specific persons observed in the particular setting under study. However Cook and Campbell (1979 cited in Adelman, 1998) equate validity with an imperfect assessment of truth value. In contrast, Cronbach (1982 cited in Adelman 1998) equates validity with persuasion, credibility and consensus: ‘Validity is subjective rather than objective’.

Image-based research involves a process of interpretation that can rest on a subjective and individual response. As Silverman (1993 cited in Prosser 1998) comments ‘The analysis of images raises complex methodological and theoretical issues…Moreover, the theoretical basis for the analysis of images is complex’. In terms of the documentary account, traditional researchers hold the belief that ‘reality’ is distorted by artistic convention and for artistic reason; indeed Walker-Evans is said to have set up his scenes to suit his aesthetic preferences in what is now contested to be authentic documentary film (Curtis, 1986 cited in Adelman, 1998). As such the processing of image-based data may feel more value-laden than the processing of text-based data, even if original image-based data are transformed into text for the purpose of analysis. According to orthodox researchers, ‘the act of image making…unacceptably alters the object in the frame and therefore objective content and subjective meaning of the image; images are, by their nature, ambiguous and do not in themselves convey meanings which are supplied serendipitaly by those who perceive them….analysis of images raises complex methodological and theoretical issues’ (Prosser, 1998). Essentially the main methodological argument against image-based research by other researchers is with images’ perceived lack of ‘trustworthiness’, despite new paradigm trends in such terms as ‘objectivity/subjectivity’ and ‘reliability/validity’ (Prosser, 1998). The concepts of validity and reliability within image-based research are therefore more prominent (Simco & Warin, 1997).

According to Prosser and Schwartz (1998) there are complex contextual issues that have to be considered right at the beginning of the research process such as the researchers’ underlying epistemological and methodological assumptions. For those involved in image-based research, issues such as the collection and interpretation of the data; the genuineness of the findings with regard to the respondents they claim to represent; and the assessment of competing interpretations of the data are therefore issues of importance in that they build robustness and help strengthen validity. As Caldarola (1985 cited in Prosser and Schwartz, 1998) illustrates, all data have strengths and limitations but data that is invalid, implausible, or untrustworthy is not worth analysing. The initial problem for the interpreter of photographs is therefore how best to ensure their plausibility and believability. According to Adelman (1998) the pursuit of internal validity for the photo document entails such things as informed selection of what to document, being systematic through reflection in the taking of photographs and low reactivity of the subjects to the presence of the photographer. The process of analytic induction proposed by Robinson (1951, cited in Adelman 1998) also allows for contrastive categories to emerge which will highlight ‘deviant’ photos and can therefore strengthen the photographers claim that the photo document is valid rather than random or accidental. Adelman (1998) goes on to suggest the acid test of making sense of photographs is whether the photographs communicate to viewers much of the intended messages. As such, to strengthen validity and reliability particular criteria have to be fulfilled. These criteria require that each image be filled with as much contextual detail for the researcher to engage in a systematic and iterative analysis of the image record. According to Prosser (1998) judgments and claims of contextual validity are best made via reflexive accounts and through representation. ‘Reflexive accounts attempt to render explicit the process by which data and findings were produced. Representation for image-based researchers, reflects not only the sources of information in terms of pictorial codes but also the mode of communicating findings to recipients of research’. In this way, full contextual detail enables the trustworthiness and limitations of photographs to be assessed and this means having an understanding of both the external and internal photocontext.

If such processes are acknowledged by those engaged in image-based research it essentially helps to address issues of validity and reliability that are often raised by orthodox researches. Perhaps as Prosser & Schwartz (1998) sugggest the future status and acceptability of image-based research may depend on working within a relatively conservative framework whilst exploring alternative modes of enquiry which are image-orientated yet sensitive to orthodox researchers, methodological concerns.


Bibliography

Adelman, C. (1998) ‘Photocontext’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 148-161.

Bryman A (2004) Social Research Methods. 2nd Ed. Oxford: Open University Press.

Prosser, J. (1998) ‘Status of Image-based Research’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 97-112.

Prosser, J. & Schwartz, D. (1998) ‘Photographs within the Sociological Research Process’, in J. Prosser (ed) Image-based Research: A Sourcebook for Qualitative Researchers, RoutledgeFalmer: London, pp. 115-130.

Simco, N. & Warin, J. (1997) Validity in Image-based Research: An elaborated illustration of some of the issues, British Educational Research Journal. Vol. 23, No. 5.

a project idea at last!

Okay, sticking with the religious theme, I've finally found a project idea. On a personal level, I feel that Christianity still has quite a significant influence in the Highlands. Although it is far more on the Western Isles, I feel that it does influence the social in Inverness. So in keeping with the principles of grounded theory, I intend to just go out and take lots of photos of churches in Inverness. I took some photos yesterday of about 8 churches but I don't think they were very good - all the rules of composition seemed to go out the window! Anyway at least I'm aware of it and for now I just want to take as many as I can. I also intend to look at graveyards to try and capture the feel of the project.

The most important thing at the moment I think is just to take the photos and see what emerges out of the process.

Happy snapping everyone!

Cheers

Clare

click 'February' to see all the photos

Just realised, apparently you have to click the tab 'February' on the right hand side for the page to display all the photos - not sure why it is doing that but it is a bit of a nuisance!

After applying the Rule of Thirds for vertical lines, I have moved the standing stone to the left - I'm not sure it actually works that well but it's all a process of learning!

Again, initially attempting to put the subject matter in the middle

There is no before or after for this photo, I just thought the angle trailing off to the upper left corner was interesting and almost conveys movement - it's interesting how photographs can do that, I've also seen sculptures that suggest movement too.

First attempt to find an S shape in the road

After applying the principles of composition, I tried to place the switch on an intersection point - where the eye is strongly drawn to

Image taken before as can be seen by the tendency to put the subject matter right in the middle (the light switch is in a store room so please ignore the chipped wallpaper and stained light switch!)

Image taken after applying the Rule of Thirds for horizontal lines - it definitely looks far better although the fence and telegraph pole spoils it a bit I think. As you can probably tell, I normally get others to take photos - this is all rather new to me!

Before - image of via duct at Culloden - the arches are really interesting

In the second image I attempted to apply the Rule of Thirds for vertical lines, the image presents far more information to the viewer and generally looks better

The first photo was taken as I would normally do it (yes I'm definitely not the best photographer) attempting to put the subject in the middle - in this instance I roped my dad into helping me out!

the concept of the collective narrative

I think the collective narrative is different to the individual narrative. Often family albums are taken out and looked at during family occasions or when there are guests visiting the house. To me it seems like a way of recounting their ties, their history and their identity. In more primitive structures where history could not be recorded, different tribal groupings would repeat their historical lineage orally as a way of remembering their history and reaffirming their identity. If one tribe eventually ceased to be, they would simply not be recounted in the telling of the tribe’s history! So it seems that the family album is about reaffirming identity and ties with one another.

essay by Brian Winston - chapter 4

Brian Winston's discussion on the complexity of the photographic image is really excellent. He deconstructs the 'authenticity' of photos such as Robert Doisneau's 'The Kiss', the W. Eugene Smith photo of Albert Schwitzer and Robert Capa's 'Death in Spain' to show the naivety of Arago and Gay-Lussac's claims of the 'scientific evidence' that photographs can produce.

His discussion on The Ax Fight (1975) is thought provoking and in some ways articulates what I have been thinking about the use of images - namely that intepretations rely on inferences made by the photographer. As Winston says, 'in short, we are relying on Chagnon far more than would seem to be the case at first sight. Moreover it is his interpretation which tells us how to read the incident...The problem with The Ax Fight is not Chagnon's commentary but the fact that he is relying on the scientific heritage of the camera to make a strong claim that he is presenting evidence of the real world. However, the claim is built on the sands of inference rather than the rock of objectivity'.

I think his weak realist position is perhaps far more plausible because it invites the reader to examine the issue of authenticity with each image and therefore become a far more discerning viewer, ultimately helping the discipline of image based research.

Cheers

Clare

some thoughts on image-based research

I'm just reading through chapter 7 of the Prosser book. I can definitely understand some of the reservations held by critics as covered in the book. For example, if a researcher is exploring another culture there is always the issue that they will create an image of something that they believe to be important - a value judgement - however they may miss something that is inherently important to the other culture's meaning system but not necessarily obvious. Nevetheless on p104 'personal reactivity' is mentioned as a methodological argument against image-based research however the personal characteristics of the researcher can impact just as much if they were using 'traditional' methods such as the written word.

It seems image-based research still has a long way to go to be taken seriously in the academic world, unfairly so I think. However Prosser's comments on this gap are rather insightful when he suggests that often if things have always been done a certain way, they are not questioned but instead just handed down by teachers, etc. This makes a lot of sense and can definitely make anyone involved in this area feel like a 'pioneer'!

Conclusion - I really like visual sociology!

My First Blog....woo hoo!

I've just created my first ever blog! The fact that I'm not very technically minded is even more reason to celebrate. Anyway here's hoping I'll be a pro by the end of this module.....